Practical Ethics and Profound Emptiness Read online

  For example, although there may be a broad and easy path to follow, the cow leading the herd goes off that path and follows a trail running along a precipice or through a thick jungle. The other cows follow and soon all of them find themselves on the edge of a cliff, or in a dangerous jungle where they encounter hornets, snakes, spiders, and the like. In the same way, non-Buddhist teachers follow a wrong path and ruin others by leading them on that path as well. Then all of them suffer.

  The Disadvantages of Engaging in a Wrong Path

  Some of these ascetics believe that acting like a dog in the present life will consume the karma to be reborn as a dog. Many such people came to the Buddha crawling on all fours, putting their mouths on the ground to eat and lap up water. Those who adhere to such wrong views and aberrant behavior not only fall into the lower realms but also are reborn in cyclic existence endlessly, experiencing the three types of duhkha and the six disadvantages of cyclic existence again and again.

  Just as the cows wandering in the jungle become entwined with vicious snakes, these people are completely wrapped up in the savage snakes of attachment, anger, and ignorance. Entangled in the vines of wrong views — the view of personal identity, extreme view, and so forth — they wander among the trees of endless beings. Unable to free themselves, confused in the darkness of ignorance, they roam in the dreadful jungle of cyclic existence with no end in sight.

  Nagarjuna counsels us: those of you who want to extract the essence from this life of freedom and fortune, who want to attain liberation and awakening, first seek an unmistaken path. If you adopt a wrong path and practice incorrectly, no matter how much effort you exert, no matter how courageous and brave you are, no matter how strong your practice may be, that path will not bring higher rebirth, let alone liberation and awakening. Therefore, it is crucial to examine a path and its teachers well and to choose wisely whom you will follow.

  Even though many cows follow a path into the jungle, there is no safety in numbers and they are unable to help each other. Similarly, many people may follow a wrong path, but their efforts to attain higher rebirth and highest good are useless and they are unable to protect each other from the dangers of cyclic existence. For this reason, it is extremely important to pray to meet a qualified spiritual mentor who shows the unmistaken path to full awakening. Having found such a spiritual guide and unmistaken path, make sure you follow them by studying, contemplating, and meditating on the Dharma.

  The Buddha was not motivated by anger, bias, or arrogance when he refuted others’ wrong paths. Moved by compassion, he won their confidence through his impeccable actions and kind words, and when people were ready he taught the correct path using reasoning.

  14.Due to killing one is born with a short life span;

  due to violence one encounters much torment;

  due to stealing one becomes impoverished;

  due to adultery one has enemies.

  Results Similar to Their Nonvirtuous Causes

  When we follow a wrong path and engage in aberrant practices or are negligent or lazy when following the correct path, we create much destructive karma and will experience the results. Complete actions have three results: the ripening result, result similar to the cause, and environmental result. The ripening result is the rebirth we will take. Results similar to the cause are situations we experience that resemble those we caused others to experience. The environmental result influences where we are born and the type of environment in which we live.

  This verse speaks of the results similar to nonvirtuous causes. Taking the lives of others will result in our life being cut short in future lives. Experiencing a short life in this lifetime is the result of killing done in past lives.

  Harming and inflicting violence on others results in receiving much harm ourselves in future lives. Being beat up or maimed by others or experiencing great physical pain even though we haven’t physically harmed others in this life is the result of inflicting violence on others in past lives.

  The result of stealing and taking what has not been freely given to us is being poor and having few possessions. Experiencing poverty or having difficulties accessing and using our possessions in this life is the result of stealing in previous lives.

  Adultery causes many relationship problems in future lives, so that your spouse becomes like an enemy. Alternatively, your spouse may run off with someone else, and in that sense as well you will have enemies.

  15.By lying one becomes reviled;

  through speaking divisively, one loses friends;

  due to speaking harshly, one hears unpleasant sounds;

  from engaging in idle talk, one’s words will be disregarded.

  Facing a lot of criticism and blame even though we haven’t done anything to cause it in this life is the result similar to the cause of our having lied in a past life. Lying in this life will result in being criticized and reviled in future lives. Being separated from good friends and having longtime harmonious friendships crumble is the result of divisive speech. Hearing many unpleasant remarks, such as ridicule and scorn, is the result of harsh speech.

  Sometimes other people think we’re lying although what we say is true; other times we express an honest opinion or contribute a good idea, but others disregard it and don’t respect what we say. These are results of idle talk.

  16.Covetousness destroys one’s desired objects;

  malice is said to bestow fear;

  wrong views lead to evil worldviews;

  consuming intoxicants brings mental confusion.

  Covetousness results in being unable to obtain what we desire and being hindered from accomplishing our plans and goals. Being easily frightened or very suspicious of others is the result of malice toward others. Inability to think clearly about the correct view, attraction to wrong views, and many deceitful thoughts are caused by holding wrong views in previous lives. Consuming intoxicants brings mental confusion and lack of clarity in both this and future lives.

  The result similar to the cause is of two types: in terms of our experience and in terms of our behavior. The examples given above are results similar to the cause in terms of our experience. The result similar to the cause in terms of our behavior is the tendency to do those same actions again in the future. For example, as a result of killing in one life, someone has the wish to kill and enjoys killing in a future life. Someone may have a habit of lying or may repeatedly have extramarital affairs due to familiarity with those behaviors in previous lives.

  When the three branches are complete, the action has the potential to bring all of the results over the span of several lifetimes. For example, taking life will bring the ripening result of rebirth in the lower realms. When later born as a human, that person will experience a short life (result similar to the cause in terms of the experience) and will be inclined toward violent behavior and killing in future lives (result similar to the cause in terms of behavior). The latter is the worst of the results of nonvirtue because it results in our repeatedly engaging in the same destructive action, thus creating more karma to experience all of the other results. This is much more serious than being born in the hell realms, because the pain of a hellish rebirth is finite — it stops when the action’s karmic potential is exhausted. Remembering the disadvantages of the result similar to the cause in terms of our behavior is a good incentive for working to transform our destructive habits.

  When we take and keep precepts, we make a determination to stop our habitual destructive tendencies, thus counteracting results similar to the cause in terms of our behavior. Purifying nonvirtuous paths of action by means of the four opponent powers also opposes this result, because one of the powers is the determination not to do the action again. The other three opponent powers are regret, taking refuge and generating bodhichitta, and engaging in remedial activities.

  The environmental result manifests as our living in a certain place. For example, killing will cause us to live in a place filled with conflicts and war. In addition, th
e food, drink, and medicine there will not be potent. Lying will result in living in a place with a foul odor, surrounded by untrustworthy people where fear and corruption in society is rampant. Sometimes we meet people who have the opportunity to leave an unpleasant place and live elsewhere, yet they insist they must stay there. That is the environmental result of their past destructive actions.

  Why do these three results come from one action? Each of the elements of a complete action principally brings one of these results. Our motivation principally brings the ripening result; the actual action mainly brings the result similar to the cause; and the conclusion of the action principally causes the environmental result.

  17.Through not giving gifts one is poor;

  wrong livelihood results in getting tricked;

  arrogance leads to a lowly station;

  jealousy brings about unattractive appearance.

  18.From anger comes a bad complexion;

  stupidity from not questioning the wise.

  These are the effects when one is [reborn as] a human,

  but prior to all of them is a bad rebirth.

  Stinginess results in being poor in future lives, and financial difficulties in this life are the result of not being generous in previous lives. Being surrounded by people who try to deceive and trick us — for example, proposing bad investments or borrowing money they have no intention of returning — is the result of engaging in wrong livelihood in past lives. Being born in a low social position or in a group that faces prejudice is the result of being arrogant and condescending in past lives. When our body is feeble, lacks vitality, and has an unpleasant appearance, this is the result of being jealous of others’ wealth and possessions in previous lives.

  Having an unattractive face is caused by anger in past lives. Being of lesser intelligence comes from not following wise teachers or studying with unqualified teachers in previous lives. Perhaps we had the opportunity to learn the Dharma but weren’t interested, got distracted, or didn’t respect people with good qualities. As a result, in this life we don’t meet wise spiritual mentors who properly explain to us what to practice and what to abandon on the path, and thus we remain confused and ignorant.

  Ripening Results

  The ripening result of an action is experienced first, then the results similar to the cause and environmental results. In the Levels of Yogic Practice (Yogacharabhumi) Asanga says that destructive actions done with a very strong motivation bring the ripening result of rebirth in a hell realm. Those done with a motivation of middling intensity result in rebirth as a hungry ghost (preta), and others done with a weak motivation cause rebirth as an animal. This is posited from the viewpoint of the intensity and duration of suffering because hell beings experience the strongest pain for a long time, hungry ghosts experience suffering of medium intensity, and animals have the least misery.

  The Sutra of the Ten Grounds (Dashabhumika Sutra) explains the ripening result in a slightly different manner, saying that rebirth as an animal is the result of destructive actions done with a middling motivation and rebirth as a hungry ghost is the result of nonvirtue done with a weak motivation. This presentation is made from the perspective of the minds of sentient beings in those realms. Hungry ghosts have a clearer mind and are more intelligent than animals, so it is easier for them to improve their situation and enter the path to liberation than it is for animals. For that reason, they are said to have shorter and less intense suffering than animals. Both explanations are valid.

  19.Such are widely known to be the ripening results

  of these [actions] that are called the nonvirtues.

  For all of the virtuous actions

  there are the opposite effects.

  To review, Nagarjuna first instructed us in the sixteen practices that will bring higher rebirth. A series of higher rebirths will give us the opportunity to generate the wisdom realizing emptiness, which is the actual antidote that brings liberation and awakening. He then explained that non-Buddhists do not follow this path, but with obscured minds, they follow incorrect paths that do not benefit and in fact harm themselves and others. With compassion, so that we won’t waste our lives by mistakenly engaging in destructive actions, he explained their three results — ripening result, result similar to the cause, and environmental result.

  The Result of Virtuous Karma

  We create virtuous paths of action by either restraining from nonvirtuous paths of action or by acting in the opposite way; for example, saving life, protecting others’ property, and speaking in ways that create harmony among people. Virtuous paths of action will bring results opposite to those of nonvirtuous paths of action. It is helpful to go through the paths of virtue one by one and contemplate the three results in terms of each.

  20.Attachment, anger, confusion,

  and the karma that arises from them are nonvirtuous.

  Non-attachment, non-anger, non-confusion,

  and the karmas that arise from them are virtuous.

  Detailed Explanation of the Results of Virtue and Nonvirtue

  Destructive or nonvirtuous karma refers to actions of body, speech, and mind done under the influence of attachment, anger, or confusion. Not only are attachment, anger, and confusion by nature nonvirtuous,5 but also any actions of body, speech, and mind motivated by them are nonvirtuous.

  It is not too difficult to understand that attachment creates destructive karma. When attachment arises to one’s body, food, clothing, possessions, and so forth, people steal others’ possessions, use their sexuality unwisely and unkindly, lie to get what they want, scream at others, talk behind their back, and so forth. This is quite apparent. It is also clear that when anger arises in our minds, it is easy for us to hurt others physically and verbally — hitting them, swearing at them, and threatening them — thus creating nonvirtuous karma.

  In the Tibetan language, confusion (gti mug) and ignorance (ma rig pa) have the same meaning. There are two forms of ignorance/confusion: (1) ignorance of the ultimate nature of reality, which grasps phenomena as inherently existent, and (2) ignorance regarding karma and its effects. The ignorance of the ultimate nature is not naturally negative — it is neutral — for it motivates both the nonvirtuous and virtuous karma of ordinary beings. However, the ignorance of karma and its effects is naturally negative because it is confused regarding virtue and nonvirtue; it believes that nonvirtue is virtue and virtue is nonvirtue. This confusion is present whenever we create nonvirtuous karma.

  Propelling karma is the karma that propels us into the next life. All propelling karma — virtuous and nonvirtuous — is created under the influence of self-grasping ignorance and thus is polluted. However, virtuous propelling karma is not affected by ignorance of karma and its effects. For example, the self-grasping ignorance present when we make prostrations is neutral, while the strong faith that is also present is virtuous. This karma is polluted virtuous karma that will lead to rebirth as a human being or god.

  On the other hand, nonvirtuous propelling karma is motivated by both ignorance of the ultimate nature and ignorance of karma and its effects. For instance, when someone has a false sense of entitlement he may lie to and cheat others, believing that as long as he doesn’t get caught it is permissible to act in this way. Or someone may conduct an animal sacrifice, mistakenly thinking that it will please a god and the animal offered to the god will attain liberation. In both these situations, the destructive karma is motivated by both the ignorance of the ultimate nature and the ignorance of karma and its effects; it is polluted nonvirtuous karma.

  The confusion spoken of in this verse is the ignorance or confusion regarding karma and its effects. Together with attachment and anger, these three poisons are negative by nature as are the actions produced by them. However, karmas created out of confusion are not necessarily destructive, because that confusion could be in regard to the ultimate nature of phenomena.

  Non-attachment, non-anger, and non-confusion are not simply the absence of attachment, anger, an
d confusion, respectively. Rather, they relate to their object in the opposite way: non-attachment is an open, balanced attitude that doesn’t crave or cling to the object or person; non-anger is loving-kindness; and non-confusion is intelligence that correctly understands karma and its effects. These three are virtuous by nature, and the karma they create is also virtuous.

  21.From nonvirtue comes all suffering,

  likewise all unfortunate rebirths.

  From virtue comes all fortunate rebirths

  and the happiness within all births.

  The ripening result of nonvirtuous karma is rebirth in the lower realms. The result similar to the cause of nonvirtuous karma is the pain and suffering in the mindstreams of humans and desire realm gods, as well as the pain and suffering in the mindstreams of those born in the lower realms. Although the karmic cause for a rebirth is either virtuous or nonvirtuous, the rebirth itself — the five mental and physical aggregates that are the ripening result of that karma — is neither virtuous nor nonvirtuous.

  The ripening result of virtuous karma is higher rebirth. The happiness we enjoy in that life, as well as whatever little happiness sentient beings in the lower realms experience, are the causally concordant result in terms of our experience. Living virtuously creates the cause to experience happiness life after life.

  The invariable propelling karma that leads to rebirth in the material and immaterial realms is a form of virtuous karma. It is called “invariable” because it is created by attaining certain levels of meditative concentration. Depending on the level attained, rebirth in the corresponding level of the material and immaterial realms occurs. The rebirth does not vary from the level of concentration attained by that human being.

  22.Thus Dharma [of higher rebirth] is considered to be twofold:

  one should not engage in nonvirtue