Practical Ethics and Profound Emptiness Read online

  Second, self-grasping of the person — especially the view of a personal identity — is the primary cause of cyclic existence. Although all forms of self-grasping must be refuted in order to attain liberation, the worst in terms of provoking the afflictions and thus the creation of polluted karma is the self-grasping of the person. Thus negating it first is of great importance.

  In short, although there is no difference in the object of negation or its subtlety with respect to the self-grasping of persons and the self-grasping of phenomena — it is inherent existence in both cases — we begin meditating on emptiness by negating the self of persons.

  34.Having heard this kind of topic [emptiness],

  the arya, Ananda, obtained the Dharma eye.

  Then he himself repeatedly

  taught this to the monastics.

  The Causes of Liberation

  The Buddha’s personal attendant, Ananda, first realized emptiness by means of inference. By continuing to meditate on the meaning of emptiness, he got to the point where he realized it directly and nonconceptually; that is, he obtained the Dharma eye and simultaneously entered the path of seeing and became an arya. At that time, all doubt about emptiness vanished because he had realized it directly for himself. By continuing to meditate on emptiness, he attained the path of meditation and finally the path of no more learning, thus becoming an arhat. As an arhat, he was free from grasping at true existence and its seeds. He then taught emptiness to others, leading many people to become arhats.

  In this verse, Nagarjuna refers to a sutra statement as a reason to prove that realizing emptiness is a cause of liberation. This point needs to be proven to the Svatantrika Madhyamikas and others who believe that simply realizing a coarse selflessness of person — the lack of a self-sufficient substantially existent I — will lead to liberation. By demonstrating that a sutra said that Ananda — who followed the hearer vehicle — attained arhatship by realizing the emptiness of inherent existence of both persons and phenomena, Nagarjuna causes proponents of the lower tenet systems to rethink their assertions and thus understand it is necessary to realize the emptiness of inherent existence of persons and phenomena. Through this, they will exert energy to study, contemplate, and meditate on emptiness.

  CYCLIC EXISTENCE AND LIBERATION DO NOT INHERENTLY EXIST

  To cease our wandering in cyclic existence, we must understand not only how we take one rebirth after another under the influence of ignorance, afflictions, and polluted karma, but also how to cease that process. Furthermore, it is important for us to know the nature of liberation — that it is the cessation of cyclic existence — so that we will strive to attain it.

  35.As long as one grasps the aggregates,

  one will also grasp the I with regard to them.

  If one grasps the I, karma [will be created] again,

  and due to that [karma], one will again be reborn.

  Identifying the Root of Cyclic Existence

  The self-grasping of persons — specifically grasping at our own I — and the self-grasping of phenomena are both the root of cyclic existence. As mentioned above, the order of generating these two is first the self-grasping of phenomena — the aggregates that are the basis of designation of the person — then the self-grasping of persons. The order for realizing the two selflessnesses is reversed; we first realize the selflessness of persons and then the selflessness of phenomena.

  The conceived object of the self-grasping of the aggregates is the true existence of the aggregates, and the conceived object of the I-grasping (self-grasping of persons) is the true existence of the I.8 To realize the selflessness of persons, we do not have to first realize that the conceived object of the self-grasping of the aggregates is nonexistent. If that were the case, we would have realized that the aggregates are not truly existent, and therefore we would have realized the selflessness of phenomena before realizing the selflessness of persons.

  On the surface Nagarjuna’s lines seem easy to understand: as long as there is grasping at the aggregates, there will be grasping at the I. But we must look at the order in which the generation of the two self-graspings and the order in which the two realizations of the two selflessnesses occur. Only then will we have a clear and profound understanding of this difficult point.

  Literally, it seems that as long as we have self-grasping of the aggregates, we will have self-grasping of the I. It seems that as long as we don’t realize the nonexistence of the conceived object of the self-grasping of the aggregates, we cannot realize the nonexistence of the conceived object of the I-grasping. But it wouldn’t be right to explain it this way because first we have to realize the selflessness of persons, which involves realizing the nonexistence of the conceived object of the self-grasping of the I.

  Thus these lines do not mean we won’t realize that the conceived object of the innate I-grasping is nonexistent as long as we do not realize the conceived object of grasping at the aggregates is not existent. That is, this does not mean that first we must realize the selflessness of phenomena and then the selflessness of persons, because the order in which they’re realized is the other way around.

  In Ocean of Reasoning, Je Tsongkhapa explains that these lines mean that as long as our acquired self-grasping of the aggregates that thinks the aggregates truly exist for this or that reason has not abated, we cannot realize the selflessness of the person. To realize the selflessness of the person, we must not be thinking of various reasons why the aggregates are truly existent.

  There are two kinds of self-grasping of phenomena: innate and acquired. The innate naturally grasps its object as truly existent. Unlike acquired self-grasping, it doesn’t think of various reasons why phenomena are truly existent. Acquired self-grasping of phenomena, which comes from learning incorrect philosophies, thinks the aggregates are truly existent because of this and that reason. The point is that as long as we think with various reasons that the aggregates are truly existent, there is no way to realize the selflessness of the person. It isn’t necessary to abandon acquired self-grasping of the aggregates in order to realize the conceived object of the innate I-grasping is nonexistent. This isn’t done until the path of seeing. But we cannot realize the selflessness of persons so long as we exaggerate the aggregates as truly existent because of this and that reason.

  If one grasps the I, karma [will be created] again, and due to that [karma], one will again be reborn. This refers to the twelve links of dependent origination, which describes how we enter and leave cyclic existence. Each set of twelve links involves the causes and results of a new lifetime in cyclic existence. Self-grasping ignorance is the starting point for all that follows in one set of twelve links. Due to the ignorance grasping the I as truly existent, attachment arises for what we find attractive and gives us pleasure or anger arises for whatever we find disagreeable and disturbs our happiness. Motivated by these and other afflictive emotions, we do various actions — we create karmas — that leave seeds or potencies on our mindstream. When craving and clinging arise at the time of death, they activate these karmic seeds, which then propel a new rebirth. In that new rebirth, self-grasping again generates afflictions, which again create karmas, which again propel more rebirths in cyclic existence.

  Without understanding this causal chain that produces our cyclic existence and without deeply understanding the duhkha of cyclic existence we experience as a result, we cannot develop the wish to cut the root of cyclic existence. For this reason it is essential to meditate on the topics in common with the beings of middle capacity as described in the lamrim texts.

  36.With these three phases mutually causing each other,

  cyclic existence whirls around

  like the circle [formed by a whirling] torch,

  without beginning, middle, or end.

  How We Transmigrate in Cyclic Existence

  This verse explains how we circle in cyclic existence by way of the twelve links. Put succinctly, from ignorance (link 1), formative action or karma (link 2) is c
reated. This leaves a karmic seed on the consciousness (link 3). At the time of death, this karma is nourished by craving (link 8) and clinging (link 9), which activate renewed existence (link 10), the karmic seed ripened by craving and clinging that is about to become the next life. This leads to a new birth (link 11) with the seven results that are duhkha by nature.

  These twelve links form three phases: afflictions, karma, and birth, with “birth” referring to the resultant birth in cyclic existence. Three of the twelve links — ignorance, craving, and clinging — are afflictions. Two are karma — formative action and renewed existence. The remaining seven — consciousness, name and form, six sources, contact, feeling, birth, and aging and death — are grouped under birth. They are the results of afflictions and karma and are unsatisfactory or duhkha by nature.

  When one set of the twelve links is enumerated, the twelve have an order. However, when we view cyclic existence from a global perspective the links are all intermingled, and we cannot say that one of the three phases is first, another in the middle, and the third at the end. For example, while experiencing a birth from one set of links, we generate ignorance and create karma that cause a second set. Then at the end of the present birth, craving and grasping, afflictions from a third set, arise. In this way, they have no beginning, middle, or end, and sentient beings are entwined in a net of perpetual afflictions, karma, and duhkha.

  This is similar to time. Within one day we can say there is a definite order in which the hours occur: one o’clock, two o’clock, and so forth. But when we consider three days together, we can’t say that one o’clock precedes two o’clock, because one o’clock on day two comes after two o’clock on day one.

  If we think about this we may get overwhelmed, feeling that cyclic existence is endless. We should meditate on the twelve links so that we think: “Since beginningless time until the present, I have experienced all the different types of duhkha without end. I cannot count how many times I have already experienced the three types of duhkha, the six disadvantages of cyclic existence, and the eight sufferings of human beings. Unless I practice the Dharma, this will go on and on without respite.”

  Of the three types of duhkha, the duhkha of pain is physical and mental pain that all beings do not want. The duhkha of change is the fact that even pleasant feelings don’t last; if we continue to do the activity that causes these feelings, it will eventually become painful. The duhkha of pervasive conditioning is the fact that our aggregates are under the influence of afflictions and karma. Contemplating this latter form of duhkha is especially effective for generating the determination to be free from cyclic existence. By contemplating its meaning in depth, we will clearly see the drawbacks of repeatedly taking polluted aggregates. These polluted aggregates are the basis not only for the misery of this life — birth, aging, sickness, death, and so forth — but also they are in the nature of duhkha because they are under the control of afflictions and karma. We experience the duhkha of pain and the duhkha of change without choice due to having these aggregates. They are also the basis for future suffering because motivated by attachment, we create many karmas when giving pleasure to these aggregates and protecting them from harm. In doing so, we perpetuate our cyclic existence.

  Look at one day in your life and consider that before even one set of the twelve links is finished, you have created so many more karmas that will propel you into continued rebirth in cyclic existence. Ask yourself, “Is there something that can stop cyclic existence?” If there is no cause or method that can destroy the karmas that keep this cycle going, then it makes no sense to become distressed; we should resign ourselves to being tormented by cyclic existence without any hope of relief.

  But if there is a method to become free, we must seek it and employ it. For example, if we have a serious heart problem, we never forget about it and constantly look for a cure. We need to determine to be free from cyclic existence and to attain liberation with the same intensity and earnestness. Je Tsongkhapa says, “When you have, day and night unceasingly, the mind aspiring for liberation, you have generated the determination to be free.” This is a firm, clear, and unfabricated understanding that will motivate us to practice the path. No matter how well things are going for us, how many beautiful possessions we have, we will have no attachment to them. Instead, we will focus on freeing ourselves from cyclic existence and attaining liberation.

  On the other hand, if we do not contemplate the defects of samsara and clearly understand its root, we are like a pig being chased by a dog. When the dog bites its backside, the pig knows it has a problem and squeals, but the rest of the time it lives at ease. Similarly, we have some sort of determination to be free only when things go wrong in our lives and we’re unhappy, but the rest of the time, we don’t bother with the Dharma.

  There is a difference between the determination to be free and the aspiration to attain liberation. The determination to be free focuses on the duhkha of cyclic existence and wants to be free from it, while the aspiration for liberation focuses on liberation and seeks to attain it. For example, a drowning person wishes to be free of the ocean and to reach dry land.

  The general order to meditate on this is to first reflect on the various types of duhkha in cyclic existence. Then recognize that ignorance, afflictions, and polluted karma are its causes and generate the wish to destroy them. Next, aspire to attain the liberation that is free from that cause. From this the aspiration to practice the three higher trainings — the path leading to liberation — will blossom.

  Compassion will arise for sentient beings by contemplating that sentient beings are subject to the gross sufferings — birth, old age, sickness, death, hunger, and thirst — and wishing them to be free of that suffering. However, our compassion will be more profound if we contemplate that sentient beings wander in cyclic existence endlessly, continually taking one rebirth after another in the six realms of existence due to the twelve links. Even when born in fortunate lives, they are still under the control of afflictions and karma, and may soon be born in unfortunate realms.

  While meditation on bodhichitta and the practice of the six perfections help to reduce our afflictions and accumulate merit, they cannot cut the root of cyclic existence. Only the wisdom directly and nonconceptually realizing emptiness can abolish self-grasping ignorance once and for all.

  We may think that since bodhisattvas pledge to stay in cyclic existence as long as even one being is not liberated, they don’t want to be free from cyclic existence and don’t aspire for liberation. But, in fact, it would be very difficult for bodhisattvas if they did not generate the aspiration for liberation, because in order to benefit others most effectively they have to remove all defilements from their own minds and cultivate all the excellent qualities of a buddha. Actually, their aspiration reaches far beyond liberation, because they aspire to attain the non-abiding nirvana of a buddha that is free from not only cyclic existence but also the personal peace of one’s own nirvana. Bodhisattvas don’t yearn for personal liberation and peace for their own sake, like hearers and solitary realizers do, but seek only what is most beneficial for others.

  To generate unfabricated bodhichitta that wishes to lead all sentient beings out of cyclic existence, we must first cultivate the determination to be free and the aspiration for liberation. Without a strong feeling of repulsion toward our own cyclic existence, we will not be able to generate strong compassion for others’ horrific experiences in cyclic existence. Both the determination to be free and compassion are based on repulsion of cyclic existence and seek freedom from suffering, but the former seeks our own freedom while the latter seeks the freedom of all beings.

  Meditation on the twelve links of dependent origination makes it clear that our cyclic existence and our liberation arise dependently. Each link depends on the preceding one; the cessation of each link depends on the cessation the previous one. Bondage in cyclic existence and liberation from it are both dependent phenomena and are thus empty of inherent existence.<
br />
  37.But the [process of cyclic existence] is not attained from itself,

  from something else, or from both; nor is it attained in the three times.

  Therefore, [for one who knows this] the I-grasping ceases,

  and hence also karma and birth.

  38.Seeing in this fashion the arising of effect from cause

  and also seeing its cessation,

  [the wise] think, “The world is ultimately

  neither existent nor nonexistent.”

  The Stages of Reversing Cyclic Existence

  Just as one link follows another in the causal chain of cyclic existence, so do subsequent links cease when their prior link has ceased. This is an example of causal dependence and illustrates that whatever arises dependently cannot exist inherently. Even cyclic existence is empty of inherent existence. It is neither inherently existent nor totally nonexistent, but rather it exists dependently.

  In the Precious Garland, Nagarjuna sets out many reasonings to prove emptiness. He elaborates on some more than others. In these two verses he speaks of what is called the diamond slivers reasoning that refutes inherently existent arising or production. This is expressed in the first verse of his Treatise on the Middle Way:

  Neither from itself nor from another, nor from both,

  Nor without a cause does anything anywhere ever arise.

  If a thing existed inherently, it would have to arise inherently. There are only four options for how this could happen: it would have to arise (1) from itself, (2) from an inherently existent cause that was other than itself, (3) from both itself and an inherently existent other, or (4) without a cause. However, dependent things cannot arise in any of those ways. Thus they lack inherently existent arising and are empty of inherent existence.9

  Verse 37 also tells us that cyclic existence does not inherently arise and cease in the three times. Nagarjuna will discuss the unfindability of inherently existent things in the past, present, or future in verse 63.