Practical Ethics and Profound Emptiness Page 9
Freedom from the causal process that perpetuates cyclic existence hinges on realizing that dependent arisings are not truly existent and meditating on this point repeatedly. How does this work? The deeper our understanding of dependent arising in its many facets, the more convinced we become that phenomena lack true existence. The wisdom realizing emptiness counteracts ignorance, the first of the twelve links. When that ignorance ceases, the karma motivated by it ceases. With the cessation of afflictions and polluted karma, birth in cyclic existence propelled by them ceases. The complete cessation of afflictions and polluted karma and the duhkha they cause is liberation.
Because the wisdom directly realizing emptiness needs to be focused and firm to overcome self-grasping, we must cultivate concentration. Stable concentration depends on training in the ethical conduct of abandoning the ten nonvirtues and keeping whatever precepts we have taken, such as the five lay precepts, monastic precepts, bodhisattva precepts, and the tantric precepts. In short, cultivating the three higher trainings is the key to reversing cyclic existence and attaining liberation.
39.Having listened to this Dharma
that puts an end to duhkha,
the undiscerning, afraid of the fearless state,
are terrified because they do not understand.
The Benefits of Realizing Emptiness
The benefit of realizing and meditating on emptiness is that we now have the means to cease our duhkha completely. When childish beings — those who lack proper discernment of reality — hear about this phenomenon called “emptiness,” they develop aversion and fear toward it. They haven’t eliminated their doubts about the ultimate mode of existence and thus are terrified of emptiness. In this way their own minds prevent them from going toward liberation. It’s tragic that by fearing emptiness they will continue to wander in the fearful state of cyclic existence, when in the depths of their hearts they seek release from suffering.
THE NATURE OF LIBERATION
Nagarjuna now begins an extensive explanation to discern the correct and incorrect views of the ultimate nature of reality. In doing so, he explains emptiness and the type of wisdom that realizes it. This wisdom is free of two extreme views — the view of absolutism that incorrectly holds the inherently existent appearances that we see every day as true reality, and the view of nihilism that incorrectly believes that if things don’t exist inherently they don’t exist at all. The middle way view that Nagarjuna champions avoids these two extremes, and someone who realizes it knows that while all phenomena are empty of inherent existence they still exist. How do they exist? They exist by depending on other factors, by being merely designated by name and thought. Thus there are two “truths” — ultimate truth, which is the emptiness of inherent existence, and conventional truth, which includes the diversity of phenomena that appear inherently existent although they are not. These two are not unrelated realities. They depend on each other. Emptiness is the ultimate nature of all conventional truths. Furthermore, emptiness exists conventionally. While it may sound strange to say that emptiness is the ultimate truth yet exists conventionally, we must remember that conventional existence is the only type of existence there is. Nothing exists ultimately or inherently. Emptiness is itself empty; it is not some absolute or independent existence unrelated to anything else.
40.You are not afraid [about the claim that]
all this will not exist in nirvana.
Why then are you afraid when told here
that the [three phases of samsara] do not exist?
Fear of the Extinction of True-Grasping Is Inappropriate
Not only non-Buddhists fear emptiness due to misunderstanding it, but so do some Buddhists. According to the Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas, at the time arhats eliminate all afflictive obscurations they obtain nirvana with remainder. It is called “with remainder” because although arhats have eliminated all the afflictions and karma that cause rebirth, they still have a body born under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma. When they die and leave their body, they then obtain nirvana without remainder. The Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas believe that at the time of nirvana without remainder, the self and the aggregates — including the continuity of consciousness — totally cease.
Similarly, they assert that when the Buddha passed into parinirvana at the time of his death, the continuity of his consciousness and other aggregates ceased. These tenet systems do not posit the four Buddha bodies, especially the enjoyment body and the many emanation bodies. They accept only the supreme emanation body — the Buddha that first turns the Dharma wheel in a universe — not other kinds of emanation bodies. They believe that in his last life Siddhartha, as a bodhisattva on the path of preparation, was born as an ordinary being still under the control of afflictions and karma. He destroyed the four maras — ignorance, afflictions, death, and the “son of the gods” — under the bodhi tree and attained awakening at that time. Although he abandoned all duhkha, he still experienced pain since he had the same polluted body he had at birth. After he passed away and attained parinirvana at Kushinagar, the continuity of his consciousness ceased and, having attained nirvana without remainder, it became nonexistent.
Proponents of these schools do not understand or accept the secret, inconceivable assertions of the universal vehicle’s explanation that the Buddha had actually attained full awakening eons ago but purposefully took birth to lead us on the path to liberation. By appearing to be an ordinary being who worked hard, overcame obstacles, and attained full awakening, his life became a teaching in itself to encourage us to practice.
Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas also assert that all phenomena truly exist because if they didn’t, they would not exist at all. Thus, they become afraid when Prasangikas negate the conceived object of true-grasping because they think that all existence whatsoever is negated. For them, that means that when arhats attain liberation, they become nonexistent.
Prasangikas say to them, “You believe that the aggregates are destroyed at the time of nirvana without remainder, and that doesn’t frighten you. However, you are afraid when we explain that self-grasping ignorance, polluted karma, and birth are extinguished at nirvana.” In other words, “Since you say that the person and aggregates, which are inherently existent, cease at the time of nirvana without remainder, why are you frightened when we Prasangikas say there are no inherently existent persons or aggregates at that time? As far as you are concerned, we are saying the same thing!”
41.In liberation there is neither self nor aggregates;
if you are intent upon that kind of liberation,
why aren’t you pleased with [the teaching that] refutes self
and aggregates here as well?
The Impossibility of Nirvana Being an Inherently Existent Non-Thing
Prasangikas explain to Vaibhashikas, “Why do you object when we say there are no inherently existent person or aggregates at the time of nirvana? Your own Vaibhashika system asserts that at the time liberation is attained the self and aggregates become completely nonexistent and extinguished. If there are no self and aggregates, there also aren’t an inherently existent self or inherently existent aggregates.” They reply, “We are not afraid because liberation that is completely free of suffering exists inherently.”
The Prasangikas respond to their Vaibhashika debate partners, “If liberation existed inherently, it would have to be either an inherently existent person or an inherently existent phenomenon. There is no third option. But when arhats attain nirvana, the self-grasping of persons and the self-grasping of phenomena have been completely extinguished by the power of the antidote, the wisdom realizing emptiness. The objects of those two self-graspings — inherently existent persons and phenomena — have also been eliminated because the meditator has realized they are nonexistent. For that reason, nirvana cannot be inherently existent.”
While Vaibhashikas may say this is not a problem because they assert a self of phenomena and nirvana is a self of phenomena, still their positio
n would accrue all the faults of asserting inherent existence as the Prasangikas so adeptly explain.
Nirvana
Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas assert that nirvana is the elimination of the afflictions and polluted aggregates, which exist inherently. Prasangikas disagree, “If the polluted aggregates and afflictions existed inherently before nirvana, then nirvana could never be attained because things that exist inherently can never change and can never be destroyed. This is because they would be independent of all other factors.”
In addition, nirvana is not the elimination of inherently existent afflictions and aggregates. The realization of emptiness does not make something that was previously inherently existent now empty of inherent existence. Rather, all phenomena have always been empty. The realization of emptiness destroys the grasping at inherent existence; but inherent existence itself never existed.
Furthermore, the Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas claim that at the time of nirvana without remainder, the aggregates no longer exist. Prasangikas disagree because if this were so, then at the time of final nirvana there would be no one who attained nirvana. That is, if the aggregates were destroyed there would be no basis of designation of the person. Contrarily, when the polluted aggregates exist and thus the person exists, there would be no nirvana, because according to the Vaibhashikas and Sautrantikas nirvana is the cessation of the aggregates. Either way, the tenets of these lower systems lead to many contradictions.
When Prasangikas say that the self and aggregates are eliminated in nirvana, it means that the self-grasping of person and the self-grasping of the aggregates are extinguished. Thus inherently existent afflictions, aggregates, and self — which never existed — are eliminated in the sense that they are no longer apprehended. Only emptiness is seen; there is no remainder of the appearance of inherent existence. In this way, Prasangikas lead us to see that nirvana and emptiness are not separate.
42.Nirvana is not even a non-thing,
so how could it be a thing?
Nirvana is said to be the cessation
of the notions of things and non-things.
The Impossibility of Nirvana Being an Inherently Existent Thing
A “thing” is an impermanent and conditioned object that produces an effect; a “non-thing” is a permanent or unconditioned phenomenon. Nirvana cannot be an inherently existent thing because it is neither inherently existent nor a thing.10
Vaibhashikas, however, assert that nirvana is a thing. It is like a dam that halts the movement of water, they say, and functions to stop the continuation of afflictions and birth in cyclic existence. Yet if nirvana were a thing, it would age and cease, in which case it would not be unchanging, lasting peace.
Sautrantikas say that nirvana is the cessation of afflictions and samsaric rebirth and is inherently existent. If nirvana were inherently existent, it would have to be either a self of persons or a self of phenomena, but it is neither, because those two selves have never existed. Neither self-grasping of persons nor self-grasping of phenomena exists at liberation, and those two selves that the two graspings apprehend also do not exist. Wisdom realizes they are nonexistent.
Some people say nirvana is the mere destruction or disintegration of the afflictions. According to the Prasangikas, nirvana would then be impermanent. Prasangikas assert the destruction or death of something or someone to be a thing: it is a “having ceased” (Tib. zhig pa), which is an affirming negative that produces an effect. For example, although death is a negative it is a conditioned phenomenon, produced by birth. The destruction of afflictions and karma is similarly a thing produced by a cause, in this case the wisdom realizing emptiness. However, nirvana is permanent; it is a non-affirming negative, an absence that doesn’t imply anything in its stead. It is not a thing.
Since nirvana is not an inherently existent thing, it cannot be an inherently existent non-thing either. This is because non-thing is posited in relation to thing, and inherently existent phenomena must be totally independent and unrelated to all other factors.
The Actual Meaning of Liberation
Nirvana is also posited from the viewpoint of the extinction of the apprehension of things and non-things as inherently existent.
According to the Madhyamikas, there are two kinds of purity: the natural purity — the emptiness of inherent existence — that has always been present, and the purity of adventitious stains that is brought about through the wisdom realizing emptiness. Ordinary beings have the natural purity since their minds by nature are empty of inherent existence. While ordinary beings have no stains of inherent existence and no inherently existent stains, they haven’t yet extinguished their afflictions and karma, thus they do not have the purity of adventitious stains.
In nirvana there are neither inherent stains nor adventitious stains. There is simply emptiness. Thus true cessation, nirvana, liberation, and peace are all emptiness.
When we say that nirvana is the extinction of afflictions, it not only means that afflictions — things — have been extinguished, but also that there are no inherently existent afflictions — non-things11 — in nirvana. This absence of inherently existent afflictions is emptiness, an ultimate truth.
According to most Prasangikas, true cessation is emptiness because the stains are extinguished within the sphere of reality, emptiness. Thus it is posited from the viewpoint of the emptiness of inherent stains.
43.In brief, a nihilistic view is the belief
that karma has no effects.
It is non-meritorious and leads to lower rebirth;
it is said to be a wrong view.
44.In brief, a realistic view is the belief
that karma has an effect.
It is meritorious, and it leads to higher rebirth;
it is said that it is a right view.
Distinguishing between Correct and Incorrect Views
These verses follow up on the Vaibhashikas’ and Sautrantikas’ objection that if nirvana is not inherently existent, it must be totally nonexistent. They accuse the Prasangikas of being nihilists because the Prasangikas assert that nothing exists inherently. To this Prasangikas respond, “We are not nihilists. The nihilistic extreme is stubbornly believing that the four truths of the aryas, the Three Jewels, the law of karma and its results, and so on are nonexistent. If a person adheres to this non-meritorious view, he will create much destructive karma and be reborn in the lower realms. To say that these same things do not inherently exist is not the extreme of nonexistence. There is a huge difference between not existing inherently and not existing in general.
On the other hand, a realistic view believes that the four truths and so on, while not existing inherently, do exist conventionally. Since they exist conventionally, it is possible to forsake what is to be abandoned and practice what is to be adopted on the path. Thinking that karma and its results exist, for example, is meritorious and leads to higher rebirth. As the sutras explain, this is the worldly right view.
45.Through knowledge one subdues the [notions of] existence and nonexistence,
and one thus transcends negativity and merit.
Hence, one is liberated from high and low rebirth;
this is what the holy one says.
Liberation Is the Extinction of True-Grasping
True-grasping is extinguished in both nirvanas with remainder and without remainder. These two types of nirvana can be posited in different ways. The general way acceptable to all Buddhist tenet systems was explained above. In addition, the Prasangika school has a unique way of positing these two.12 When hearer or solitary realizer arhats are in nonconceptual meditative equipoise on emptiness, only emptiness appears; there is no appearance of true existence at all. This is called nirvana without remainder, “remainder” here referring to the appearance of true existence. “Subsequent attainment” is the time after those arhats have arisen from meditative equipoise on emptiness, when they go about their daily activities or do other types of meditation. Although true existence appears to them at
this time, they do not grasp phenomena as truly existent. This is called nirvana with remainder, the “remainder” again being the appearance of true existence.
This verse explains that the liberation in the continua of hearer or solitary realizer arhats at the time of nirvana without remainder, when they are meditating single-pointedly on emptiness, is the extinction of true-grasping. In addition, at the time of the nirvana with remainder, when those arhats are not in meditative equipoise and going about their daily activities, the liberation in their continua is the extinction of true-grasping.
“Through knowledge” means that meditation done with the wisdom directly realizing emptiness will pacify the views of true existence and nonexistence. That is, one will abandon grasping phenomena to be truly existent and grasping them to be conventionally nonexistent. Even at the time of nirvana with remainder, when arhats are not meditating on emptiness and have the appearance of true existence, true-grasping is no longer present in their continua. Due to this, constructive and destructive karma motivated by true-grasping are also pacified. In other words, the results of birth, aging, sickness, and death that arise from them are also pacified and these practitioners are liberated from both high and low rebirths. “This is what the holy one says” indicates that Nagarjuna is quoting a statement the Buddha made in a sutra.
In short, through directly realizing and repeatedly meditating on emptiness, true-grasping is gradually extinguished and the virtuous and nonvirtuous karmas motivated by it are also pacified. New karmas that cause rebirth in cyclic existence are no longer created and those previously created cannot ripen into new high or low rebirths in cyclic existence. In time all afflictive obscurations are extinguished, and practitioners attain liberation.
46.Seeing that production has a cause,
one transcends [the notion of] nonexistence.
Seeing that cessation has a cause,
one does not accept [the notion of] existence.
Freedom from the Extremes of Existence and Nonexistence Regarding Cause and Effect